Chinese Society¶

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[NOTE: This and the following sections - Social Classes, Education, Confucius, Filial Piety and Ancestor Worship, and Local Temples and Gods - do not seem to be my writing style. I wonder if I lifted this from Oscar Rinell or some other source. Incidentally, I have change some of the verb tenses from present tense to past tense. The present tense indicates the original writers was writing at the time that many of these social institutions still predominated in Chinese society. LJH)

The Chinese society was divided into four great classes, which they arranged in order of dignity. First was the scholar, then the farmer, then artisan, and last of all, the merchant. J. Campbell Gibson says, "This fundamental conception of the framework of society must be kept clearly in view by all who wish to understand China. A lettered class to govern, and a humble body of agriculturalists to obey - that is the Chinese ideal of a peaceful and settled society. The second place in social standing is allotted to the cultivator of the soil, because he is the producer in a minor sense, and holds the third place only, while the merchant is relegated to the lowest place of all." There was no military class according to this Chinese grade of official standing. A proverb confirms this: "Nails are not made out of good iron, and soldiers are not made out of good men."

Education¶

In many poor villages small schools existed, but there very many villages in which there is none. The whole school system was left entirely to private enterprise. Parents took the initiative to secure a sufficient number of their children. An unoccupied room in a private home or ancestral temple may serve as a school house. They also supply the furniture for each pupil, which consists of a simple table and a stool. A much respected teacher is employed. Confucius and Envious, the great sages of antiquity, were only teachers. The teacher's salary was small, but he may add to his income by acting as letter-writer, by writing ornamental scrolls to adorn houses, and by writing complaints to mandarins in lawsuits.

The first little book put into the young student's hands is the San-tzu ching, or "Three Word Classic." It begins with a statement that might tax all the mental powers of a philosopher, "Men at their birth, are by nature radically good; in their natures they approximate, but in practice differ widely." The teacher read a couple of lines, while the student repeated them, and is corrected by the teacher. The student then returns to this seat and shouts the proverb many times. Every student is his own class and all shout as much as possible their lessons. The task of learning to write Chinese characters is a very serious one. The well formed characters is the art of calligraphy. Many years pass before the student understand the philosophical and moral ideas in the books he has studied.

Higher education is stimulated by competition in the Civil Service Examinations. Thousands of students apply but only a very few are allowed to pass. Examination Halls consist of individual small cells 5 feet 9 inches by 3 feet 8 inches wide, their height being a trifle over that of a man. Each cell has a table, and a stool for the solitary student. The candidate enters with food, fuel, candles, bedding, and writing materials after being carefully searched. The examination lasts three days, followed by an interval and another three days, an interval and lastly the final 3 days. The themes are taken from the Four Books and Five Classics, and the candidate answers with written essays and poems. The first degree is received in the Prefecture city and is termed "Hsiou-t'sai, meaning "budding genius," which foreigners call the bachelors degree (B.A.). This degree does not result in any official post, but it is a much coveted honor. Successful graduates can take their second degree styled "Chu-jen" or "promoted scholar" which is the masters degree (M.A.) in the provincial capital. The next higher degree is taken in Peking and termed "Chin-shih" "Entered Scholar" or LLD. This opens the door to official careers.

The highest degree was taken in the palace and in the presence of the emperor himself, was styled the Chuang-yuan or "Laureate." As poets and historians they became members of the Hanlin Academy. At these examinations some students are said to have died in the examination halls under the severity of the mental and physical strain. Unfortunately degrees sometimes are sold by the presiding mandarins. The system of Civil Examinations was abolished in 1905.

Every city with a city wall was required to have a Confucius temple. Kiaochow had one surrounded by a red wall. There was no image, only a simple tablet which reads, "Most Holy First teacher, Confucius' spirit tablet." The Confucian doctrines were regularly recited in the local temple by the scholar-gentry who also performed many public functions in the city and villages without official pay.

Confucius¶

Confucius is the Latinized name, but his real family name was Kung. He was called Kung the Master, Kung Fu Tze. The great teacher was born in 551 B.C., and died in 478. His grave is one of the sacred shrines of China. His father, Shuh-liang, a military officer, was seventy years old at the time of his birth and had ten children. Confucius, the youngest, was the only able-bodied son. The aged soldier left the son of his old age, an orphan of three years, to the care of his mother, who watched over his education and moral training. Of the boy, it is recorded, "he used to play at the arrangement of sacrificial vessels and at postures of ceremony." This showed his innate love of ritual. At the age of fifteen he "bent his mind to learning." Ancient history was the object of his study and his search for ideal perfection. He married at nineteen, but his marriage did not seem to be a happy one. He had only one son, Li. The name means "a carp." The reigning Duke's present on the occasion was a carp.

About the time of his marriage he obtained a small government post, first as keeper of stores of grain and later as guardian of the public fields and lands. At the age of twenty-two he was released from official responsibility and became a teacher. He welcomed all pupils, also those who only came with "a bundle of dried fish," the cheapest of all national products. But he had little patience with those who were not in earnest. "I do not open the truth to one who is not eager to learn. When I have presented one corner of a subject, and the listener cannot from unfold the other three, I do not repeat my lesson."

His object was not simply to impart knowledge; it was to teach men to think for themselves. For thirty years, from the time he was twenty-one till he was fifty one, he was a successful teacher. At times he disciples numbered three thousand. His visit to the capital at Loyang enhanced his reputation in his home town. He was the ancient palaces and temples and called upon Lao Tzu, the "Old Philosopher", who urged a "back to nature" movement.

When Confucius was fifty-one years old he was appointed governor of the city of Chungtu, and afterwards as Minister of Justice in the kingdom of Lu. The wise administration of Confucius aroused the envy and fears of the Duke of Ch'i. A present of eighty beautiful chorus girls and 120 thoroughbred horses was sent to the ruler of Lu. He was soon absorbed in pleasure as to neglect the duties of the state. Confucius could no longer exercise a good influence and therefore resigned. For thirteen years he traveled from one feudal state to another, honored in some, but no one was prepared to accept his principles and act them out. He returned to his native state, continued teaching and completed his literary work. He edited the nine Classics. One of them, the Spring and Autumn a brief history of the State of Lu, was written by the sage.

When Confucius was seventy-two years of age, it seemed his life work to have been unsuccessful. He was seen walking slowly to and fro meditating:

The great mountain must crumble;
The strong beam must break;
And the wise man will wither away.

He died a week after saying these words. His grave is outside the north gate of Chu'fu. A number of is disciples kept watch beside his grave for three years. His favorite follower Tzu Kung remained there for six long years. While he lived no sovereign would place him in permanent office, yet no sooner did he rest in his tomb than the name of Confucius was sounded through the six kingdoms. The Duke of Lu built a temple for him, and instituted sacrifices in his honor. In 195 B.C. the founder of the Han Dynasty visited his grave and offered an ox in sacrifice. After that time the Imperial Government has paid respect to the memory of Confucius, the Emperor sometimes sacrificing in person at Chu'fu.

For at least 1200 years in the temple of Confucius in Peking the emperor twice a year offered sacrifices. Twice a year in 1560 temples, similar observance were carried on for more than a millennium. Less elaborate ceremonies took place every month, and no less than 62,606 animals are said to have been slaughtered annually in these sacrifices. A grand chorus honoring the "Uncrowned King" was sung:

Confucius, Confucius! How great is Confucius!
Before Confucius there never was a Confucius;
Since Confucius there never has been a Confucius;
Confucius, Confucius! How great is Confucius.

"China has produced no other figure who has been so intensely admired. The result of the centuries of devotion paid to him is that the character of the people has been more nearly the creation of this one great teacher than is the case with the people of any other single country in the history of the world.' So says a modern scholar, but the gentle old philosopher himself never dreamed of such immortality."

Filial Piety and Ancestor Worship¶

Ancestral worship was the National Religion of the Chinese as high and low, rich and poor, old and young, alike honor their dead parents. It appeared to be the established cult a the very beginning of Chinese history, and remained for generations as the chief religious practice of the race. Confucius encouraged this form of worship.

Most homes had shrines with wooden tablets, inscribed with names, dates, etc, in which the spirits of the dead members of the family were supposed to dwell. The clan may have its ancestral temple. Here the "spirit tablets" of departed forefathers were kept. Incense is burnt and offerings of food given before these tablets at proper times.

The belief of the Chinese is that a man possesses three souls. The second one is at the grave, and the last goes into Hades to receive rewards or punishment. At funerals paper houses, clothing, and other necessities are burnt in the belief they are needed in the next world. On this and other occasions pork, fish and fowl are offered.

Filial Piety consists of service to living parents and worship of dead ancestors. Filial piety is the greatest of all virtues while Mencius says, "Unfilial conduct is the worst of sins." "Three things are unfilial, and having no sons is the worst." The duty of the oldest son is to carry on the family line. Daughters are married into other families. A wife who is sonless can be divorced, and a concubine justified for the sake of securing a son. There is a superstitious fear that neglected ancestors can work evil to the family.

One of the ten commandments says, "Honor thy father and they mother that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord God giveth thee." Filial piety may be the secret to China's long history. Memorial service in honor of the dead is common among races, but ancestry worship with the belief that the spirit of dead ancestors can harm the living is superstition. Chinese Christians as a rule do not take part in these ceremonies.

Local Temples and Gods¶

The local Buddhist and Taoist temples like the Confucian shrine are the best buildings in the city and villages. It is difficult to discern the differences from the two former mentioned as they have borrowed so much from each other. A pair of lions guard the city temple as others to the Yamen or mandarin residence. The gatehouse has four images, two of which are vicious guards against demons. A theatrical stage is next where plays are given in honor of the gods. Another courtyard and we see the main hall of the temple. The middle image is Buddha and on both sides are other gods. Confucianists do not have images in their temple, but many worship the god of literature, the god of war in other temples. The Pearly Emperor is the highest god in a Taoist temple. The god mostly loved is Kwanyin, the goddess of Mercy. She gives sons to longing mothers and fills all needs. One often hears "Na-mo o-me-to-fuh (Honor to Amita Buddha). Amita means "boundless light" and is the one who directs followers to the Paradise in the great West. In Buddhism and Taoism there is a god for everything.

Buddhist priests are known by their shaven heads and flowing gowns. Candles are lighted before the gods. The priest sits beside a table, coo-uniting his beads and chanting the instructions of Buddha. When the worshiper comes he beats a wooden fish shaped head, lights the incense and says a prayer. The prayers are for sons, riches, long life, recovery from illness and office. Worship only lasts a few minutes per person. The temples are crowded with worshipers, the majority are women, on the new and full moon. The Taoist priests do not shave their heads, but do their hair up in a little knot. They wear blue robes, while the Buddhists wear yellow. There are two types of Taoist priests, one living in the temples and profess celibacy, the other dwelling at home with their families , if not on duty. In addition to temple worship they deal mostly with evil spirits and medicine.

Before leaving we must see a Buddhist and Taoist hell on both sides of the temple grounds. Each department has a judge and many evil devils who carry out the horrifying punishments. Those who have broken the laws of Buddha have their tongues pulled out, bodies sawn asunder, or thrown on a hill of knives, or ground in a stone mill, etc. Every form of torment, mental and physical is used to frighten people from breaching Buddha's commandments.

The courts of the temple on special days are crowded with all kinds of people. Besides the worshipers many are interested in seeing what is happening, merchants of medicines, fortunetellers, beggar, etc. Here you cannot see the spirit of worship.

Footnotes

CHAPTER

Foreign Devils: A Swedish Family in China 1894 to 1951
© 2012-14 Lennart Holmquist
Lorum • Ipsum• Dolor • Sic Amet • Consectetur

Updated: 10-Feb-2017

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