THE INTERNMENT CAMPAT WEIHSIEN,
SHANTUNG PROVINCE,CHINA
March – September, 1943
An objective, descriptive account of theInternment Camp from the point of view of the writer’s experiences. It is thought to contain no statementsof political or international significance.
HowardS. Galt, 1943
THEINTERNMENT CAMP AT WEIHSIEN, SHANTUNG PROVINCE, CHINA
Shortlybefore the middle of March (1943) there came from the Japanese militaryauthorities, mediated through the Japanese Consul General and his Swiss consularrepresentative, an order for Americans in Peking to prepare for removal to thecivilian assembly center (commonly called concentration or internment camp) at Weihsienin the province of Shantung. Heavybaggage, which might consist, for each person, of a bed, bedding, and not muchmore than two small trunks, was to be packed and ready for collection byJapanese trucks on Saturday and Sunday March 20 and 21. The Americans with their hand baggagewere to leave Wednesday March 24.
On the afternoon of the chosen day we arrivedaccording to a specified order on the lawn of the American embassy. There we were in the hands of Japanese consularpolice, who received us, arranged us in small groups, each with a leader,assigned to us numbers, and examined our hand baggage. Some persons had heavy articles, andarticles not considered by the police necessary or suitable, removed from theirhand baggage, but in general the examination was not that strict.
Hand luggage was limited in quantity to whateach person could carry himself. It was interesting to note the containers people had used, or the devicesadapted, to make the luggage more mobile, or to increase the amount. Many had made use of knapsacks strappedon the back, thus leaving the hands free to carry two or more suitcases. Some had made use of a small “knock-down”type of wheel-barrow consisting chiefly of small wheels at the end of a pair ofshort poles – a vehicle improvised for the occasion. A few had strapped roller skates firmly under the more rigidsuitcases or boxes, so that they could be pushed or pulled along theasphalt-paved streets.
We had been told that each person must carryhis own luggage – an ordeal giving the women and more elderly people much anxiety,for the Embassy grounds were about a quarter of a mile from the R.R.station. But there was much reliefat starting time when the Japanese authorities, better than their word,appeared with two large trucks to carry to the station the heavier pieces ofhand luggage.
The number of Americans was nearly 200, andas we marched out of the Embassy gate, down Legation Street and around throughthe busy Chien Men (city gate) to the Stadium, we presented a sight interestingto multitudes of spectators, and especially interesting to Japanese camera menwho were busy turning the cranks of their cameras, probably in the preparationof films to be exhibited in Tokyo.
On arriving at the station, we and allour hand luggage were loaded into the third-class coaches – very crowded, buteveryone managed to find a seat. At Tientsin and Tsinan we were obliged to change cars, and wereresponsible for moving our own luggage, although at the Tsinan station porterswere allowed to assist. Late inthe afternoon of the second day (March 24) we arrived at the Weihsienstation. Buses and trucks werewaiting for us and in them we were conveyed past the city suburbs and into the missioncompound nearly a mile northeast of the city.
This mission compound, a center of work ofthe Presbyterian Mission (first established about 1884) was an area irregularin outline – although approximately four-sided – of about 20 acres. It was well-filled with buildings andis probably one of the most extensive mission compounds in China. The Japanese had chosen it as largeenough to accommodate about 2,000 people. The large gateway was on the north, and a short distance away, andalmost parallel to the north wall, flowed a small river at the bottom of a ravinewhose banks were irregularly terraced, and planted with willow trees.
Inside the front gate on the right was alarge church building, designated by the Japanese authorities as the “assemblyhall” for the camp. Extendingsouthward from the front gate, and from the church yard, were two straightroads, bordered on both sides with many small courts in which were long, lowone-storied buildings for students’ dormitories. Beyond the southern ends of these two roads was an extensiveopen area occupied by two large three-story buildings. These were constructed nearly fortyyears earlier for the union college located here, which later moved to Tsinanto become Cheeloo University. Still further south were several smaller courts containing the two-storyresidences of the missionaries. These residences were occupied by the Japanese authorities and so were“out of bounds” for camp residents.
A large area to the east of the general areajust described was occupied by a variety of courts and buildings, dormitoriesor classrooms, for schools or for other purposes. Still further east on the border of the compound was thelarge three-story (plus basement) hospital, in the midst of its own ratherample court, large enough for a tennis court, a basketball court, and a garden.
The most numerous buildings were of the lowone-story dormitory type, containing rows of rooms in size about ten by twelvefeet, each with its own outside door. All of these rooms originally had brick or tile floors, but the authorities,in preparation for us, had equipped them all with board floors. All rooms had been freshly white-washedand the wood-work painted.
The whole compound had its own electric lightsystem, but this had been largely removed and was replaced with current fromthe city electric light plant some distance away. The sources of water were several surface wells, equippedwith iron pumps. Near four ofthese the Japanese had built low water towers with tanks to be filled by force pumpsfrom the wells. Hot water boilers,shower baths and certain very defective plumbing systems were supplied withwater from their tanks. Theplumbing for the sanitary installations was particularly defective and the flushtoilet equipment was wholly un-usable.
In general, it may be said that, although theJapanese authorities had spent much thought and considerable amounts of moneyin preparation, the buildings and grounds were not ready at the time of ourarrival. There was a report, whichseemed to us very credible, that the local authorities responsible for the preparationhad telegraphed to Tokyo asking for two weeks extension of time, but Tokyo hadnot consented, and had ordered the grounds occupied without further delay. Upon our arrival evidences ofincomplete preparation were everywhere. The scholastic furniture and equipment of dormitories and school rooms,not suitable for our use, had been hastily removed from the buildings and dumpedin disorderly piles in the courtyards and unoccupied corners of thegrounds. Among these things was,besides good school room furniture, much scientific apparatus – the equipment ofphysics and chemistry laboratories thrown out upon the ground without regard tovalue. There were also here andthere many piles of left over materials and of rubbish left behind by theworkmen.
The rooms intended for our occupancy wereentirely unfurnished except for small cupboards or bookcases nailed to thewalls. The numbers and locationsof these little cupboards seemed to indicate that one for each individual wasintended. The more necessarythings, beds and chairs, were entirely lacking. It was clear why we had been advised to bring our own beds.
Those who were to occupy the camp came fromthree city centers. Peking, Tientsin, and Tsingtao – with a few from Tsinan. The contingent from Tsingtao,consisting of 700 or 800 persons, was first to arrive. They had set up akitchen and dining room establishment known thereafter as “Kitchen No. 1” Part of the Tientsin contingent was next to arrive, and their commissariatwas known as “Kitchen No. 2.”
The Peking contingent arrived in the lateafternoon of March 25 – too late to take any steps in the preparation of ourown supplies. We were all ratherhungry, for food on the train, consisting only of the lunch materials whicheach could bring with him, was none too ample.
Upon arrival we first lined up on the smallathletic field, near the church, for a thorough check-up, roll-call and thenwere marched to “Building No. 24”- one of the college buildings mentioned above– for assignments of temporary quarters for the night. Men were placed in the basementclassrooms and women in the classrooms above. There were no furnishings in these classrooms except a fewreed-mats for the floor – not enough for all. There were, however, two or three stoves placed where theirheat could temper somewhat the cold rooms.
After each of us had chosen his floor space,and piled up his luggage near by, we were assigned to Kitchen No. 2, where theTientsin kitchen staff had by pre-arrangement, provided supper for us. Upon return to our rooms wespread out such rugs and pillows as each had brought with him and settled downfor the night. The rooms were coldand our rugs did little to soften the floor, but we were thoroughly fatigued bythe uncomfortable railway journey and that first quiet night in camp enabled usto catch up on a bit of sleep.
The next morning, after breakfast, also inthe No. 2 dining room, we were ready for assignment to quarters. But first we were lined up by the authoritiesand required to sign statements promising good behavior in camp, and reportinghow much currency we had brought to camp. We were informed that later this currency must be handed over to thecustody of the authorities.
On the assignment of quarters, there was evidenceof considerable fore-thought, especially in the placing of families. A man and wife were usually assignedone of the 10 by 12 foot dormitory rooms mentioned above. If there were children the number ofrooms was accordingly increased, with arrangements in suites, ifavailable. Single men and singlewomen were for the most part divided into groups of different sizes varyingfrom 4 or 5 to 25 or 30, and assigned to classrooms, or other large rooms inthe various buildings. In caseswhere they were assigned to the 10 x 12 dormitory rooms, three were placed ineach room.
The place for the Peking contingent commissariat,designated as Kitchen No. 3, was made ready and a kitchen staff appointed. From that time on the three kitchensprovided for their own groups. After a second contingent from Tientsin arrived, and a few others fromother sources, the number was approximately as follows:
KitchenNo. 1 (Tsingtao) = 750
KitchenNo. 2 (Tientsin) = 600
KitchenNo. 3 (Peking) = 400
Total, approx.= 1,750
Atthe outset there were two sittings in each dining-room, but gradually, as thekitchen served each meal for about one and a half hours, the “queue” system wassuch that distinctly separate sittings were largely terminated.
Here it should be added that the Japaneseauthorities had in advance constructed a central bakery, which supplied whitebread – from first to last the foundation of our diet – to all of the kitchens.
We have spoken of the total camp personnel ascoming chiefly from three city centers. It is now time to analyze the total membership of the camp into certaingeneral categories.
Themissionary personnel were the largest occupational group, probably includingmore than half of the entire camp. This group naturally divides again into Catholic and Protestant elements. Of Catholic there were a total of about475, with perhaps 350 priests and 125 nuns. They represented a large number of congregations andsocieties and among them were six bishops. They came from all parts of North China, and quite a numberwere from Mongolia. As tonationality, they were chiefly American, Dutch, and Belgian.
The total numbers of Protestants (includingthe Anglican or Church of England group) was approximately 400, including in thiscategory missionary families. Among them were included all the denominations ordinarily met with, suchas Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, Congregational, Lutheran, etc., besides manyfrom the less commonly met denominations and from independent missiongroups. Those under missionaryappointment were probably quite evenly divided between men and women. They were nearly all either British orAmerican.
Among the non-missionary personnel businessmen from Tientsin and Tsingtao, with some from Peking, constituted the largestgroup. Among them were merchants,bankers, members of importing and exporting forms, clerical and professionalmen, and members of large companies such as the British and American Tobacco Co.(“B.A.T.”) and of the Kailan Mining Administration.
Both within and outside of the missionarygroup there were a number of professional men and women – physicians, surgeons,lawyers, engineers, musicians, teachers, nurses, and universityprofessors. In the non-missionarygroup there were not many nationalities represented besides British andAmerican.
After the camp residents had all arrived, andprovisions had been made for living quarters and eating arrangements, it wastime for the permanent organization of camp life and activities. We had been informed in advance thatthe camp must be self-operating as far as labor was concerned – that noservants or workmen would be supplied to us, and that the work must thereafterall be done by ourselves. Butorganization included much besides labor activities. Recreational, cultural,educational, musical, religious, and other activities and interests were allpromoted and regulated by the general organization.
Themain fields of organization were determined in advance by the Japanese commandant,the supreme authority in the camp. According to his plan there were a number of committees to serve thewhole of camp life, with Japanese as the chairmen. These chairmen were merely nominal heads who might exert acertain amount of directional and veto power. On each committee there were three to five members from thecamp personnel, usually chosen to represent more or less equitably the threekitchen groups, and one of whom served as the real working chairman. These committees will be mentioned inorder. (Factual details may not beentirely accurate as I must now depend entirely on memory. The manuscript of an exact account ofthe camp, with many notes and statistical material, was taken from my luggageby Japanese examiners.)
The General Committee
Asmall but important committee, taking charge of general affairs, as the nameindicates. Its duties were in partresidual – taking charge of many matters as they arose, matters which did notlogically belong to the more specialized committees.
The Quarters Committee
Incharge of housing, assignment of rooms, etc. Changes in the original housing arrangements and assignmentof place to occasional newly arrived members were the functions of thiscommittee.
The Employment Committee
Incharge of the permanent and periodic assignment of work jobs. The scope and importance of thiscommittee’s functions will be readily understood. Its decisions and appointments affected the daily work ofmore than 1,000 people - all of the adults and many of the older children.
Ofcourse there was much labor connected with the commissariats of all threekitchen groups. Accordingly therewere three subcommittees to take charge of these divisional assignments. Taking the Peking (Kitchen 3) group asan example: The committee instituted an inquiry of all concerned to discuss thequalifications, aptitudes, skills, and preferences with respect to the greatvariety of tasks to be done. Inthe assignments special skills, aptitudes and choices were considered as far aspossible. Some skills andaptitudes – for example those of amateur carpenters – suggested permanentassignments to jobs. In types ofwork perhaps not requiring much skill, or which were particularly hard andunpleasant, frequent rotation was most satisfactory. The week was chosen as the unit of time and so it came aboutthat there was posted a weekly bulletin giving a complete list of assignmentsto tasks for the following week. These weekly lists probably contained the names of at least 100people. Of kitchen and dining roomactivities more will be written below.
Besidesthe work in the three kitchen groups there were general tasks by which thewhole camp was served. There wasthe central bakery, which operated more than half of the 24 hours of each day,thus requiring several shifts of workers. There were the pumps which supplied water to the reservoir tanks, andwhich had to be manned steadily all day long. There were the furnaces and boilers for the supply of hotwater for the bath showers and for washing purposes, and distilled water fordrinking. These required men withengineering experience. There werethe sanitary installations to be cared for – work the more necessary and themore unpleasant because of the defects of the plumbing system. There were jobsfor carpenters, blacksmiths, plumbers, metal-workers, masons, andelectricians. To these jobs therewere usually permanent assignments as mentioned above.
The Supplies Committee
Thiscentral committee consisted of two divisions: one in charge of generalsupplies, and one in charge of hospital supplies. As to general supplies, chiefly food and fuel, for the firstfew months the operations were carried on in part by three sub-committees forthe three kitchens. Later therewas a large degree of unification and one general committee received supplies dailyfrom the Japanese in charge, weighed or counted the total and made an equitableassignment to the three kitchens. Supplies were usually brought into the compound on Chinese carts and wheel-barrows,with Chinese drivers or runners in charge. But after two months or so, the Japanese authorities,becoming suspicious of secret communications with the outside world through thecarters, ordered that Chinese bringing the supplies were not to enter thecompound gate. From that time itbecame necessary for supplies committeemen to meet the vehicles at the gate anddrive (or lead) the cart mules, or push the wheel-barrows, to the suppliesdepot several hundred yards distant near the south border. For the men concerned, and forspectators, these were new and interesting experiences. The Chinese mule has his own ideasabout the language and methods of the driver and the mule’s responses to astranger are not always cordial. As to the wheel-barrow, the usual type is large and carries its loadhigh, and an amateur’s efforts to balance the load are not alwayssuccessful. But on the whole the committeemendid well. There was no stoppage inthe general stream of supplies and only one or two run-aways by the mules.
Thetasks of the division in charge of medical supplies were quite different. After the initial opening of thehospital, orders for supplies for the most part had to be placed in Tientsin orTsingtao in care of the Swiss Consuls. When these arrived they had to be carefully conveyed to the hospital anddistributed for use or placed in the pharmacy.
The Finance Committee
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Theoperations of this committee were much like those of a bank. During the first few days in camp allmembers were compelled to hand in to the bank their ready cash. To each person was issued a statementof account, corresponding to a bank pass-book. Subsequently, according to the regulations of the Japaneseauthorities, the bank would pay monthly to each depositor a fixed sum (at first$50 North Chinese currency – abbreviation “F.R.B.” for “Federal Reserve Bank” –later increased to $100) for use in the camp. Such funds were needed to make purchases in the canteen, payminor assessments to the kitchens for “extras” or to pay laundry bills.
Laterwhen “comfort money” from the American and British governments was receivable,the specified amounts were credited to the individuals’ deposit accounts, andpart payments were added to the banks regular monthly payments.
Whenthose camp members whose names were on the repatriation list were ready toleave, the bank arranged for the transfer of the specified amounts (not toexceed F.R.B. $1,000 per individual) to Shanghai for use on the voyage. Provision was also made for the issueof smaller sums for use on the journey by rail to Shanghai.
Amongcamp members there were a number of competent and experienced bankers from the NorthChina cities, and with their appointment to the Finance Committee, it goeswithout saying that the banking operations were well managed. It should be added that the actual cashwas kept in custody by the Japanese, and the Japanese accountants “chop” (seal)was necessary for all cash transactions.
The Discipline Committee
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TheCamp was at all times under the ultimate control of the Japanese consularpolice and of the guards appointed by them – all under the supreme control ofthe Commandant. But the ordinaryconduct of camp members – social or anti-social as the case might be – wasunder the control of the Discipline Committee. An active member of this committee was Mr. Lawless, anEnglishmen whose regular position was head of the Legation Quarter police forcein Peking. Mr. Lawless was alarge, portly, impressive-looking man, usually very jovial, but at times verystern, admirably adapted to his task. This task was on the whole not very difficult, for the behavior of campmembers was good, with few exceptions.
Perhapsthe most difficult part in this committee’s administration had to do with the controlof the so-called “Black Market” conducted “over the wall” between camp membersand Chinese who were bold enough to approach the wall from outside. At this point it may be explained thatsome time during the months preceding the establishment of our camp theJapanese military had occupied and fortified the compound. Guard towers of brick had been built atall corners and strategic points, and against the compound wall in the inside,at intervals of 30 or 40 yards, mounds of earth had been thrown up ofsufficient height to enable guards to stand watch or shout over the wall. Some of the fortifications had beendemolished prior to our occupation of the camp. It will be easily understood that the lower port holes inthe corner towers, and the numerous mounds inside the wall could easilyfacilitate communications with people outside.
Thechief market demand of camp members was food stuffs – especially eggs, andhoney, sugar and other sweet products – to supplement the meager dining room fare. Tobacco and matches were also much indemand.
Allsuch traffic with people outside was forbidden by Japanese regulations, but theJapanese guard was insufficient to prevent such traffic – especially atnight. The Japanese authoritiesexpected the Discipline Committee to cooperate in the enforcement of theseregulations. But the DisciplineCommittee was half-hearted and rather indifferent in the matter. Contact with the outside world seemedhardly within the responsibility of the committee. Furthermore a large element of public opinion in the camp heavilyfavored these “Black Market” operations – partly on the ground that theauthorities were not keeping the promises made in advance regarding the camp diet. With such conditions the DisciplineCommittee did not take much part in enforcing Japanese regulations relating tothis traffic and these “over the wall” operations continued during the wholeperiod – at least to the date of the repatriation of Americans (September 14). At times there were even suspicions thatsome of the Japanese guards were making “squeeze” money in these operations,and were not too energetic in enforcing regulations.
Besidesthe above-mentioned committees there were other committees of an un-officialcharacter – un-official yet making large contributions to camp life. A few of these will be considered.
The Education Committee
Therewere a considerable number of school-age children in camp. For most of these, provision was madein two school groups. Peking had alarge and well organized “Peking American School.” There were in camp a fewteachers and perhaps 20 or 30 pupils from that school. Places in the church or church yard forclasses were found, school desks were assembled from corners of the compoundand before many days the relocated but attenuated “P.A.S.” was again inoperation. Studies were carried onso successfully that the committee in charge felt justified in authorizing a“commencement” with official graduation of 3 or 4 members of the seniorclass. This graduation ceremony,prepared for and conducted in the approved and conventional American style, wasa highly interesting event in the camp, with an audience which entirely filledthe church.
Inthe British tradition there was the Tientsin Grammar School. In the camp were a few of the teachersand some of the pupils from that institution. They also were organized into a school and in quite aregular way were able to carry on their studies.
Inaddition to these schools, there was a large and well conducted kindergarten andalso some educational classes for young children conducted by Catholic sisters.
Besidesthese formal schools there were organized many classes, lectures and discussiongroups in the field of adult education. The curriculum subjects probably numbered as many as 20 or 30, studiesin the various languages predominating, and among the languages Chinese most indemand.[1] Besides the lectures offered in seriesto select groups there were general lectures, usually one each week, on themesof common or popular interest.
The Entertainment Committee
Afterthe beginning of camp life, not many weeks elapsed before a series of weeklyentertainments was provided. Thesetook many forms, dramatics and music programs being the most frequent. Members of the group coming from Peking– a city always proud of its cultural attainments – were most resourceful inpreparing entertainment programs, but the Tientsin group was by no meansbackward. In many of theentertainments, both dramatic and musical, all three of the city centersfurnished talent.
In this connection it is not improper to mention Mr. CurtisGrimes, a young pianist and conductor with a rapidly growing reputation inPeking. His most notablecontributions were his own piano concerts, and the leadership of a chorus andan orchestra. The nucleus of bothchorus and orchestra had been trained for longer or shorter periods by Mr. Grimesin Peking. These members were re-enforcedby excellent musicians from the other cities. Among the musical programs of the chorus were three of thegreat classical oratorios.
In this connection it may be noted that, atthe time of the establishment of the camp the Japanese authorities were goodenough to give special permission to transport to the camp a grand piano fromPeking. Later a second piano wassimilarly brought from Tientsin.
The church serving as auditorium with aseating capacity of 700 or 800, made possible the regular entertainmentprograms. It was soon noted thatif programs could be given twice, the attendance of practically the whole adultmembership of the camp was possible. Friday and Saturday evenings were usually chosen for the two settings,and on Thursday tickets for the two evenings in equal numbers were freelydistributed.
Besides the evening entertainment there wasan almost daily series of athletic sports. The grounds near the hospital, already mentioned, were usedfor tennis, basketball, and volleyball. An athletic field left of the church was larger and there baseball andhockey were played. By far themost popular sport was baseball – most popular both for the players andspectators. The size of thegrounds cramped the game somewhat so that the soft-ball (or playground ball)was commonly used. For this alsothe grounds were really too small, so that some special “ground-rules” werenecessary, one of the most important being that when the batter knocked theball over the compound wall he was entitled to a “home-run.” In the selection and matching of teamsall of the major divisions of camp personnel were recognized. Each kitchen group had its team, and attimes a second team as well as a first. Each of the three cities – Peking, Tientsin, and Tsingtao – had itsteam. Some of the largercorporations, such as the B.AT. (British American Tobacco Co.) and the Kailan MiningAdministration, had their teams. Other teams were selected quite miscellaneously by captains, appointed orself-chosen. There were boys’teams and girls’ teams. But theteam which, after many contests, proved superior to all was a team selectedfrom among the Catholic Fathers. The whole camp was surprised at the proficiency of this team and at theinterest both Catholic priests and nuns manifested in the game. One of the Catholic bishops took partin the game. The best player inthe whole game was a priest whose nickname was “Father Wendy.” Although competition was keen there wasthe utmost harmony and good feeling. When the weather was good there were games almost every evening andspectators gathered in crowds. Atsome of the keenly contested games probably more than half of the entire camp (oftenincluding some of the Japanese guards) was present along the sidelines.
Amongentertainments there should be mentioned one organized not by the entertainmentcommittee but by the Catholic Fathers. It was an out-door performance held Sunday evenings. Its leading spirit was a Dutch priestof great vigor and vitality, a good musician and possessing marked naturalqualities of leadership. English was the language which was most used, ofcourse, but the Father in charge had very incomplete knowledge of English, andhis foreign accent, and the mistakes which he made, which did not at all quellhis enthusiasm, were part of the entertainment. The program, largely improvised and prepared for eachoccasion, included much music, instrumental and vocal, the latter in the formof community singing. The words ofthe songs, usually adapted to familiar melodies, often referred to interestingcamp happenings, or made “local hits.” Besides music, with a continual flow of interactions and humorouscomments by the leader, there were simple dramatics, puppet shows and shadowpictures. A small movable stage,with suitable electric lighting, was set up for each occasion. These entertainments seemed to fill aSunday evening vacancy in camp life and became very popular with an attendanceof people, both sitting and standing, of 500 or 600. It may be added that the Protestant church held Sundayevening song services, but they were by no means as popular as thisentertainment by the Catholics.
Avery different form of entertainment, the game of chess, while not under the auspicesof the Entertainment Committee, was quite popular, promoted and organized by achess society. The players wereclassified and a systematic tournament was held.
The Medical Affairs Committee
Theoperation of the hospital and the general medical and sanitary care of the campwere the functions of this committee. There were a considerable number of doctors in the camp, among them a chiefsurgeon and a prominent physician from the Peking University MedicalCollege. Although there was quitea little illness in camp and the resources of the Hospital were fully used,there was no serious epidemic and on the whole health conditions were quitegood. One of the senior physicianswas a competent and experienced oculist, and there was present a competent and experienceddentist. Offices for them wereprovided at the Hospital and thus the corresponding special needs of campresidents were cared for.
Asto general sanitation the deficiencies in the sanitary installations of theJapanese were the cause of extra difficulties, dangers, and unpleasant tasks,but with careful safe-guarding, and general cooperation, the dangers wereovercome.
Committee on Engineering and Repairs
Thiscommittee was under the direction of a trained engineer. In cooperation with the employmentcommittee there were organized squads of masons, electricians, plumbers, metal-workersand carpenters. Some of the workof these specialists consisted of repairs, but much of it was of the nature ofremodeling or rebuilding to remedy deficiencies in the original preparation ofthe camp. Some of the men amongthese skilled workers were men of special training in these vocations, but mostof them were men whose avocations had attracted them into these fields andwhose skills were those of amateurs.
Inthe fields of women’s work there was some unofficial but very effectiveorganization. A few sewingmachines were available and so a center for sewing and repair of clothing wasestablished. Repairs of courseimplied chiefly hard work, and this was distributed among a large number ofwomen to be done in their homes.
Asto laundry work, most people did their own, often in the midst of greatdifficulties and limitations. Washing was of course a necessity but many came to the conclusion thatironing was an unnecessary (or unobtainable) luxury. In the laundry work many women helped their men friends in voluntaryand informal ways. However, agroup of Catholic Sisters, taking advantage of facilities in the Hospitalbasement, organized a semi-public laundry, and eventually arrangements weremade by them with skilled Chinese in a village outside to do laundry work on acommercial basis.
Oneenterprising woman widely known and experienced in the management of a shop inPeking, took the initiative in establishing camp exchange (known as the “WhiteElephant Exchange”) where, besides some buying and selling, people couldexchange their own useless things for things useless to other people – aprocess of transformation which rendered all things useful. This institution was not fullyorganized for several months, but when it was installed in its own quarters andclearly advertised, it rendered much service to the community.
Otheraspects of women’s work will be described below in connection with kitchen anddining room service.
Therewere three other forms of community service not mentioned in what we havereported about organization and employment. A barber shop was manifestly a great need and, when two menwith the necessary skills were found, a room was provided and the shopopened. Shoe repairing was asecond need soon widely felt, since the foot wear was deteriorating with theheavy work and a shoe-repair shop was opened. A third need was watch repairing. Several decades earlier the Catholics gained the reputationof introducing the arts of watch and clock repairing into China, so it was notsurprising to find among our Catholic Fathers a man with skill in this art – whereupona shop for his services was duly opened.
Thus,sooner or later, as almost all the practical needs of a community of 2,000people became evident, ways of supplying these needs were found and adopted, soit might almost be said that our camp was a self-contained community.
Religion
Thenormal religious interests of a community of the size of our camp would presentimportant aspects, but, as the camp had so many professional religionists inits personnel, religious activities had more than usual importance. Among the Catholic, Anglican, and FreeChurch groups there was enough cooperation to make common use of the church andarrange in a harmonious schedule the services of worship for Sundays and otherdays. The church building thenbecame a very busy place during all the hours of Sunday. The Catholics began with two or threeearly services of Holy Mass, followed about 11:00 by the Protestant Anglicanmorning service of worship. In theafternoon the Free Church people of many denominations joined in a union churchservice.
Thepresence of so many Catholic priests and nuns and six bishops in a camp madepossible their full ritualistic services of worship including Pontifical Mass,as well as the special services for Palm Sunday and Easter. With carpenter work by priests anddecorative work by nuns a very beautiful and impressive altar was arranged. All other necessary requisites, altarfurnishing, etc., had evidently been brought to the camp. The antiphonal singing by companies ofwell trained priests, and the polyphonic singing when nuns also took part, werefeatures of interest to both Catholics and non-Catholics.
TheAnglican or Episcopal members of the camp were not numerous, but all theirformal services, with altar furnishings, bishop’s robes, and fixed ritual lesselaborate than the Catholics, were held regularly. Early morning communion, because of conflicting hours andfewer attendants, was usually held elsewhere than in the church.
Missionariesand laymen belonging to the free churches constituted a large group and becauseof varying practices in the different denominations, and more democraticprocedures, presented more complications in organization. A representative but temporarycommittee was appointed which made plans for services of worship and otheractivities and chose the necessary leaders. After several weeks the temporary arrangements, without muchchange, were made permanent and the united organization developed its manyactivities under the name “Weihsien Christian Fellowship.” The organization under this name,rather than under the title “Union Church” was adapted after much earnestdiscussion. The somewhat broaderand less formal organization under the name “Fellowship” made it possible forthe Anglican group to cooperate in many of the activities. There was hope that some of the moreliberal-minded Catholics might participate also, but although unorganized andsocial relationships were very friendly and harmonious, this hope was notrealized. However, there were somesmall discussion groups, interested in religious and theological themes, inwhich both Catholics and Protestants participated.
_Dining _
Asto general living conditions in the camp some accounts, more in detail, ofkitchen and dining room arrangements, is in order. By way of example the conditions in Kitchen No. 3, whichserved the Peking group, will be considered.
KitchenNo. 3, and its dining room, were housed in the lower floor of a two-storybuilding in dimensions about 80 feet long by 40 feet wide. The kitchen occupied two rooms about 12feet wide, across the two ends of the building, the central part being thedining room, and communicating with the kitchen rooms by broad doorways. For the kitchen fires the Japanese hadbuilt brick ranges, with grates for either wood or coal, and crowned withlarge, shallow, open kettles about four feet in diameter. These stove structures, with their bigkettles, were essentially in the common Chinese pattern. The kettles were covered with roundwooden covers. All processes ofcooking had to be adjusted to this equipment. The dining room was supplied with tables and long benches(no chairs) hastily built by carpenters. The benches were so poorly constructed that they soon began to collapse,and all of them (and those in the other dining rooms also) had to be rebuilt bythe camp carpenters. East andNorth of the building was a wide open space, partly shaded by trees. In this area supplies of food and fuelcould be unloaded, meat and vegetables could be prepared for cooking, and queuesfor entrance to the dining room doors could be formed.
Thekitchen 3 group was fortunate in having among its personnel a few cooks ofalmost professional status. Therewas an ex-Marine from the American Embassy guard in Peking, a Catholic “Father,”and a group of two or three Dutch nuns. All of these had had experience in group-kitchen cooking. Assistants were appointed for these andthey took charge of the heavy cooking labor in rotation through weeklyperiods. Besides the cooks a largestaff of women and men were required for specialized tasks. The preparation of vegetables, thepumping and carrying of water, starting the fires, chopping wood, serving inthe dining room, washing dishes, washing dining room tables (there were notable cloths) and sweeping the floors, carrying bread and other supplies – nearlyall of these tasks required 3-times-a-day attention and effort. Weekly assignment to these tasks,involving perhaps 30 to 75 people, was the responsibility of the employmentcommittee.
Asto supplies for the diet, there were only two articles unlimited and alwaysavailable: white bread and tea, and some of the meals, especially breakfasts,consisted entirely of these two articles. That more meals were not this limited was the result of ingeniousplanning of the cooks, rather than of the liberality of the Japanese suppliesoffice. We have already mentionedthe bakery as a central establishment. Flour and yeast were often variable in quality and at times the breadwas quite inferior. But on the whole,the bread may be rated as good and wholesome. Tea was served without fail three times a day, but therewere no “trimmings” to go with it.
Vegetables,next to bread and tea, were the most liberally provided. Potatoes were quite frequentlysupplied, but they were usually small and limited in quantity. For the sake of economy they wereusually served (and eaten) unpeeled. Cabbages, leeks, onions, and other green vegetables were more liberallysupplied.
Meatand fish appeared quite often, and were supplied more frequently thanconditions in the cities we had left behind would lead us to expect. Beef and pork were most common, withfish occasionally. Eggs wereissued in very limited numbers to the kitchens, but a larger proportion ofpeople had their own methods of securing eggs (either from the canteen or fromthe “Black Market”) and special arrangements were made in the kitchen forcooking eggs for individuals.
Freshfruits, such as apples and pears in season, were issued occasionally to thekitchen in very small quantities. Some sugar and margarine were supplied. Salt and chiang yu , a Chinese condiment resembling Worcestershiresauce were issued in sufficient quantity.
Consideringthe limited and rather irregular issue of food supplies by the Supplies Officethe cooks seemed remarkably resourceful and ingenious in introducing bothvariety and palpability into the diet. The bread and tea menu, which seemed so often indicated by the limitedsupplies issue, was often varied by making a kind of “bread porridge” out ofthe dried and leftover residues of the daily bread quota. This breakfast dish was served so oftenthat it came to be called “Weihsien Porridge.” While many people tired of it, to be sure, yet it was asuccessful effort to make much out of little.
Forthe other meals the chief dish was usually a rich soup or a stew to which, inorder to achieve nourishment and variety, all the ingredients in the days issueof supplies were added. One reasonfor putting most of the meal into a single soup or stew was the manner ofservice. Everyone had to supplyhis own dishes, carrying them to and from the dining room for each meal. With the number of dishes by thiscondition reduced to a minimum one large bowl or one deep plate was the mostcommon equipment. Not only so, butspeed in the serving process, with long queues waiting was important, and onelarge unit of food was most convenient. Economy in dish washing was also an important factor.
Thefood was served just inside the door from large containers brought steaming hotfrom the kitchen. As soon asserved, people found their places at the tables, having mastered the art ofclimbing or hopping over the long benches already placed at the tables. In doing so, if you managed to kickonly one of your neighbors already seated you were considered quite polite. At the table were found plates or traysof bread – frequently replenished by waiters appointed for the purpose. Another set of waiters poured tea orhot water or both as required. Besidesthese two types of floor waiters there was a third, a woman who went about witha cloth wiping the table after persons had finished, in preparation for thenext to follow.
Ifthe food for a meal was sufficient second helpings could be had by those withmore hearty appetites. A secondhelping was usually served from a well-recognized extra container in the cornerof the room, and was often announced orally by persons in charge, the formula being,for example “Seconds on stew!” For such an announcement, or for any other, tobe made, there must first be a sharp table-rapping to silence the noise andsecure attention. The talking andclatter in a dining room of 110 or 200 people reminded one of the noise ofconversations in a large institutional reception, when everyone has to raisehis voice to be heard.
Dishwashing was a carefully systemized process. There were two or three units of operation, each in chargeof one woman or sometimes two. Foreach unit there were two large containers of hot water, one for washing and onefor rinsing. When people hadfinished a meal they “queued up” before one of these units, handed in theirdishes (after each person, urged on by public notice and public opinion, hadmade them as clean as possible as he finished the meal) and received them againout of the rinsing pail. There wasno dish wiping except as some of the more particular arranged to do it for themselves.
Althoughfor the fastidious feeders and delicate diners, people who ordinarily make muchof the aesthetic aspects of eating, the meals were not attractive, yet on thewhole they were fairly nourishing and wholesome. There was a monthly weighing schedule, arranged by some ofthe physicians as a check on diet. The monthly weight records showed that,after the first few weeks, gains and losses of weight were somewhat evenlybalanced.
Thisgood result of diet should no doubt be credited in part to purchases of food fromthe canteen, rather than to the adequacy of the dining room diet. After the first month or so the canteenwas provided with more adequate snacks, so that eggs, fresh fruit, honey andsome other articles were available for purchase. With most of these commodities, however, the supply waslimited, so that a system of rationing and systematic distribution had to beadopted. At first this meant longlines in queue, but later, after the system of wardens was adopted, thedistribution was usually through the wardens, and long periods of waiting wereunnecessary.
Block Wardens
Asthe warden system was something of a “second thought” in organization we didnot describe it in considering that topic. From the beginning of camp life the Japanese insisted on adaily roll-call, or check-up on members. The hour for this was at first 10:00 o’clock, but this time, in themidst if the dinner work period proved very inconvenient. Consequently the roll-call was changedto 7:30 in the morning. Consularpolice or guards made the rounds of buildings and rooms, which had been groupedin numbered blocks, and called for the prompt appearance of all residentsoutside their doors to be counted. It soon became apparent that in each block there was a need for someoneto call people to their doors (considering the early morning hour) at the rightmoment, to save the time of all concerned. For this service, and also to serve as convenient means ofcommunication in verbal notices or orders, wardens were appointed for theseveral blocks. (The clever reader, like the facetious persons in camp, perhapscannot resist the temptation to call these functionaries “block-heads”-but thisterm never became popular!) Thetotal number of these numbered blocks was about 60 and such approximately wasthe number of wardens, comprising both men and women.
Thefunctions of these wardens, as camp life went on, became more and more numerousand complex. Their employment incarrying out the canteen’s ration systems has already been mentioned. In the financial dealings between campmembers and the bank, the wardens also came to serve a very useful purpose.
Thedaily roll-call, in which the wardens officiated, occasionally exhibitedfeatures both interesting and amusing. Late sleepers were often reluctant to appear outside their doors, the menfrequently being seen in their pajamas, or with faces covered with lather forthe shaving process. On the partof the police, as time went on the roll-call became more and more perfunctory. Frequently they passed the blocksrapidly, accepting the wardens’ reports that all were present or accounted for(quite a number of persons were already at work in the kitchen or elsewhere atthe roll-call hour) and scarcely looking at the line of people standing in thedoors.
Occasionallythe roll-call was carried out in a comprehensive and careful way. The wholecamp personnel was assembled on the athletic field by the church, and lined upin numerical order according to the number which at the outset had beenassigned to all. The consularpolice carefully checked each line, then added and compared results as a check ontotal attendance. Nearly an hourof standing in line was involved on each of these occasions, which occurredabout once a month.
Attitude Toward Work
Theattitude of camp members to the labor tasks assigned to then was noteworthy. The most laborious and distastefulforms of work were readily undertaken by men highly placed in ordinary sociallife – men accustomed to giving orders and to be waited on by servants. For example: in the mason work, brickand stone, sand and lime, had to be carried long distances. Carrying poles such as ones used byChinese workmen were often seen on the shoulders of men accustomed to taketheir exercise in tennis, cricket or golf. Carrying crates, more adapted to occidental ways of carryingthings, were made in large numbers by the carpenters. These were used for building materials, for food supplies,and for the disposal of garbage and other refuse. There seemed to be no shrinking from “coolie work” even ofthe most distasteful kinds. Inwoman’s work there were similar conditions and the same attitude. The most unpleasant of household taskswere taken up and carried through without hesitation.
Clothing
Tothe general observer of camp life the daily costumes of the people wereinteresting. The costumes of theCatholic priests and nuns of course were of distinctive patterns. But among them also there was varietyaccording to membership in different societies or congregations. The gowns of “sisters” were all wideskirted and full-wimpled, surmounted by hoods or bonnets with long veils. But in the specific patterns, and inthe color of black, white and grey and their combinations, there was much morevariety. For the “fathers” it wasevidently permissible to exchange the long black priests’ gown for the gownsand other garments of Chinese costumes, and so much variety was introduced intothe fathers’ appearance. And they,like other men, while at work in warm weather, removed outer garments, and someof them thus closely resembled the Chinese farmer or laborer.
Theweather in camp, after the first few weeks, say from May to September, wasquite uniformly warm – in July and August very hot, so that both men and womenreduced their clothing to the minimum. Considerations of economy in the knowledge that while in camp clothingsupplies could not be replenished, had the same influence as hot weather. For the women the most abbreviated“sport suits,” following closely modern bathing-suit patterns, werecommon. Men at work or play, notonly at the time and place of camp life but more universally during the last fewyears, having imitated the oriental farmer and laborer in discarding all uppergarments, exposed their bare backs to the sun and came to resemble members ofthe brown race.
Thusthe exigencies and conditions of camp life joined to recent occidentaltendencies in costume, which have shattered all the common and conventionalpatterns of apparel, resulted in extremes of variety in camp costumes that werehighly picturesque and unconventional.
Communications
Thecommunications facilities of the camp with the outside world were strictlycontrolled and very limited. Newspapers, especially the Peking Chronicle, were admitted, though quiteirregularly and not in continuous series. There was a camp post office, which censored and much delayed incomingletters. Packages from outsidefriends in Peking, Tientsin, and Tsingtao mostly containing food (after reportsof the limited camp fare had gone out) began to arrive in large quantities andafter some delay were delivered upon the payment of small fees. Out-going letters or postcards werelimited as to frequency of posting, content, and form of hand writing. Post cards were usually limited to 50words, and letters to 150 words. In both cases, block letters or type writing were required.
Insuch circumstances there were some arrangements for secret communications “overthe wall,” but these were very limited. In a community thus circumstanced rumors were rife, much discussed andquickly disseminated. They wereconcerned with all topics of interest, both serious and comic. Rumors in serious subjects were usuallynot taken seriously, but they offered interesting topics of conversation whilewe were so isolated from happenings in the outside world.
Population Changes
Thetotal personnel of the camp, analyzed briefly in an earlier paragraph, underwentsome changes before the summer was over. During the late spring and early summer there were rumors of theimpending departure of the Catholic priests and nuns, since specialarrangements for them were being made in Peking. In August the substance of these rumors became fact and 400or more of the Catholics were withdrawn and sent to Peking. The Apostolic Delegate in Peking – a specialemissary of the Pope – for reasons which we could not know, had influence withthe military authorities which made such a change possible. This large group of Catholics departedin two contingents on different days, and at both times nearly the entireremainder of camp members gathered on the athletic fields where the assemblytook place, and at the gate to bid our Catholic comrades farewell. On both occasions cordial attitudeswere especially expressed and there were many evidences of mutual regard andfriendship.
Afterthe departure of the Catholics the vacant space was soon filled by large groupsof adults and of school children from the coast city of Chefoo. The pupils were from the C.I.M. (ChinaInland Mission) school and the others were from an internment camp. For reasons of convenience and economythe Japanese authorities thought it best to concentrate all of these in the Weihsiencamp.
Thisgeneral description of camp life, which here comes to a close, covers theperiod from March 21 to September 15, when the majority of the Americans incamp left for repatriation.
[1] The Chinese language instructor wasGeorge D. Wilder, a retired missionary who had returned to Peking to teach inthe College of Chinese Studies.